Diversity and the Practice of Journalism

Diversity has become the watchword of the journalism profession as newspapers, particularly those part of large corporations such as Gannett, and TV stations strive to fill their newsrooms with more women and minority journalists. The numbers are tallied and reported yearly by such professional organizations as the American Society of Newspaper Editors, with a goal of matching newsroom demographics to that of the population by the year 2000. News organizations hope the inclusion of greater numbers of women and minority journalists will help them better cover those diverse communities, with the result of extending readership or viewership into them. It is basic economic sense that if you are to build circulation or ratings within a particular community, you must cover it. Diversity is also a prime goal of journalism education (although the mechanisms have come under intense debate) as schools seeking national accreditation -- or to maintain that status -- must address standards on recruitment and retention of women and minority faculty and students, and on the inclusion of curricular matters that recognize and addresses gender and ethnic issues in journalism.

But diversity must be thought of as more than numbers, more than increased audience or more than increased news stories from communities that were once overlooked. Two limitations of "diversity as numbers" thinking include:

In fact, "newsroom culture" changes as it becomes more infused with values brought by women and minority journalists. They bring with them different backgrounds, perspectives and values than the fairly homogenous subculture of journalists that Weaver and Wilhoit (1986, 1991) have documented in the "pre-diversity " era. This sentiment was echoed by Ellis Cose, author of The Rage of a Privileged Class (New York: Harper Collins 1993), who told a conference of editors (1994) there is "a huge chasm between blacks in the newsroom, which remains predominantly white...there is rage in the newsroom. Black and white reporters see issues very differently....Have we been focusing too much on numbers? People who come to the newsroom from different backgrounds don't know how to talk to each other." The "Management of Diversity" is becoming a growth industry in newsroom consultation. When successful it will focus not on how to turn diversity into conformity but on how to open up newsrooms to the changes diversity will bring. As this newer wave of journalists begin to reach a critical mass in newsrooms, there will no longer be the need to "get along by going along" with the mainstream or dominant cultural flow.

And those different cultural, or subcultural, values will find their way into news values as well. Diversity in news coverage will become more than discovering traditional, but overlooked, stories in minority communities. It will also become finding and developing stories that don't fit into the traditional litany of news values. Stories traditionally cast as conflict, for example, are likely to give way to stories that stress solutions: Ways of connecting people, of finding the common ground they share, rather than objectively documenting the opposing poles of issues that separate them. Media ethicist Deni Elliott sees, for example, a need and growing trend for a "journalism of forgiveness" to complement the traditional "journalism of justice" that focuses on continuing blame rather than signs of rehabilitation or redemption (1994). Diversity will bring not just a change in news sources, but a change in news content -- and values.

Our instruction in journalism ethics needs to explore those values that will be brought into the newsroom and in to news coverage by the increased staffing of women and minority journalists -- and by their increased participation in the decision-making of what goes into the daily paper or nightly newscast. In fact, those future journalists are now in our classrooms. They need to be recognized, addressed and validated.

Diversity's Place in the Canon

Black, Steele and Barney note "news media codes of ethics and books on journalism ethics seldom mention issues related to diversity. It is clear, however, that diversity issues have an important place in any discussion of journalism ethics." The authors place diversity in the imperatives of journalistic accuracy and fairness,

"whether it relates to avoiding stereotypes or redefining news to better reflect a multicultural society." (1995, 133) There is a grounding for a "an ethics of diversity" or even a "diversity imperative" in theories of justice and caring. News and information can be included among Rawls' "social primary goods -- liberty and opportunity, income and wealth, and the bases of self-respect," which he says "are to be distributed equally unless an unequal distribution of any or all of these goods is to the advantage of the least favored." (1971, 303). The unequal distribution of sources and subjects in the news, as well as news coverage of issues, has traditionally been from, and favored, the perspectives of the mainstream culture.

From Rawls' vantage point, newsroom staffing and news coverage ought to be at least equally distributed among community stakeholders. In some instances, it could be justified in tipping the scales toward to the traditionally underrepresented and undercove red. Christians, Ferre and Fackler take diversity in community coverage beyond an ethic of justice to the level of a covenant, describing a "Communitarian pluralism: that "goes beyond a news hole proportionate to the demographics of a region. It recognizes the need to respect a minority of an isolated tribe, to favor the interests of those with least clout. When pluralism aggressively champions the differences within a framework of human solidarity, true covenant has the ground to spread its roots. Yet given the culture of silence that screens too many persons of varied ethnicity, an obligation to promote and explore the hidden people is the 'affirmative-action' duty of a press jealous for covenant. Media channels seldom take the inarticulate and cloutless to the top of the page . . . ." (1993, 100).

Diversity as a need for inclusivity of all communities is consistent with Gilligan's ethic of caring with an imperative "that everyone will be responded to and included, that no one will be left alone or hurt." (1982, 63). Being left out of the newsroom or news coverage is tantamount to being left alone, and the hurt caused by stereotypes perpetuated by incomplete or inaccurate coverage is antithetical to caring. Friedman, in an essay reconnecting Gilligan's care ethic to the traditional distributive just ice theories, such as Rawls' draws another foundation for a diversity imperative:

". . . Notions of distributive justice are impelled by the realization that people who together comprise a social system may not share fairly in the benefits and burdens of their social cooperation. Conceptions of rectificatory, or corrective, justice are founded on the concern that when harms are done, actions should be taken either to restore those harmed as fully as possible to their previous state, or to prevent further similar harm, or both." (1993, 267). The celebration of diversity and inclusivity as a part of a human value system is not limited to Western thought. The "concept of the unity of all things," however disparate on their surfaces, is integral to Native American, Hindu and Buddhist thought. Nakamura notes ". . . the more anything is individualized, the less it shares in the essence of reality" (1964, 67). In Polynesian principles, the concept of "Aloha" extends far beyond the tourist greeting to a recognition that all are connected to the land so that to treat one unequally will disrupt the person-land balance to the detriment of all. Native Hawaiian language and thought are primarily concerned with unity, harmony, cooperation and goodwill - foundational values to inclusivity (Guanson, 1991, 5-8).

Expanding the Canon: Some Suggestions

Traditional instruction in journalism ethics tends to be descriptive and practical: What actions should journalists take when confronted with certain moral or professional dilemmas? And the obverse: What kinds of professional or legal dilemmas will be created when journalists make certain normative lapses, such as becoming involved in a conflict of interest or naming a confidential source? The philosophic underpinnings found in traditional ethics codes and many texts to guide the practical ethical decision-making process to resolve such dilemmas are often limited and condensed.

The traditional canon aspiring journalists are introduced to is generally informed by the ethical triumvirate of virtue, duty and consequences as described from the writings of Aristotle, Kant and Mill. The Golden Mean, Categorical Imperative and Utilitarianism generally comprise the philosophic bag of tricks journalism students are expected to draw from in deciding whether to name a rape victim or accept a free concert ticket, or how to report on racial unrest. (Lambeth, 1994).

What different models of journalism and news values might arise if they were informed by, for instance, more traditionally eastern ways of thinking and knowing? Can some of the recognized failures of journalism built around a veritable cult of competitive, individualistic objectivity that owes no allegiance to source or community be addressed by incorporating values more closely aligned with collectivist ways of thinking? Clifford Christians, John Ferre and Mark Fackler develop such a model of journalism with Good News: Social Ethics & the Press (1993: Oxford University Press), steeped in communitarian ethics. John C. Merrill's Legacy of Wisdom: Great Thinkers and Journalism (1994: Iowa State University Press) is an invaluable survey of 39 philosophers from Confucius and Lao-tzu through Sisela Bok and Harrah Arendt. Merrill draws from their thinking what can be applied to journalism, or what journalism would be like if guided by their philosophy. The Enlightenment stalwarts are included, but are supplemented by representatives of Eastern thought, existentialism, feminist philosophy and "medium/message" proponents such as McLuhan and Ellul. Journalism ethics instructors who have searched for a "reader" of broad-based thought that can inform the practice of journalism will appreciate Merrill's guided tour.

The traditional canon of journalism ethics, including the Enlightenment-inspired thought of Milton, Locke, and Jefferson, produces ringing support for the free marketplace of ideas and equally resounding defense of the right to speak or publish unpopular -- even hurtful or persecuting -- ideas. This rights-based perspective defends the producer or communicator of the ideas. But what is the perspective of those being persecuted, or hurt by the ideas? How does the First Amendment help them when it unflinchingly endorses the rights of others to victimize them? This is the troubling and intriguing analysis posed by Mari J. Matsuda, Charles R. Lawrence II, Richard Delgado, Kimberle Williams Crenshaw in Words That Wound: Critical Race Theory, Assaultive Speech, and the First Amendment (1993: Westview Press). Matsuda et al. present a perspective those in mainstream journalism rarely consider, although one many of their audience -- and new journalist colleagues -- have experienced. In addition to wounding words, visual images need to be reassessed in diverse classrooms and newsrooms. One published work and another in print offer some new visual perspectives to add to journalistic inquiry and decision-making: Russell Leong, ed. Moving the Image: Independent Asian Pacific American Media Arts (1991: UCLA Asian American Studies Center) and Paul Lester, ed. Images That Injure: Pictorial Stereotypes in the Media (1995 - in Press: Greenwood). Leong's collection focuses on film, but contains valuable discussions of values, issues, and self-images within the Asian-American and Pacific Islander communities. Lester's work promises discussions of harm caused by portrayals of ethnic minorities, women, the disabled, gays and lesbians, the over weight -- even attorneys. Also included will be a section on "Images That Heal," positive forces to serve as guideposts for future visual coverage. Healing the rifts among journalism, society, and education is a theme that runs through Felix Gutierrez's Racial Inclusiveness: Journalism Education's Second Chance (1987: The Institute for Journalism Education). Understanding differences among racial a nd ethnic groups is a critical step toward inclusiveness. Two excellent sources focusing on African Americans include Thomas Kochman's Black and White Styles in Conflict (1981: Univ. of Chicago), and Carolyn Martindale's The White Press and Black America (1986: Greenwood). The Asian American Handbook (1991), prepared by the Asian American Journalists Association and published by the National Conference on Christians and Jews, documents historic and contemporary coverage of the nation's fastest growing ethnic minority. It de tails the differences among Asian ethnic groups and offers useful guidelines on coverage that goes beyond features on colorful moon festivals or superachieving immigrants. The effects of media on a wide range of minorities and the growth of minority media in the U.S and the world are documented in two volumes that should be on every diversity bookshelf: Clint C. Wilson II and Felix Gutierrez's Minorities and Media: Diversit y and End of Mass Communication (1985 :Sage) and Stephen Harold Riggins' (ed.) Ethnic Minority Media: An International Perspective (1992: Sage). Also moving from intercultural to international perspectives is Thomas W. Cooper's (ed.) Communication Ethics and Global Change (1989: Longman Inc.). This collection of national ethical systems and codes includes insights into European, African and Asian media as well as chapters on searching for universals among ethical systems and on the implications for global connectivity through interactive technologies.

Richard Brislin, in Understanding Culture's Influence on Behavior (1993: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich), discusses individualism vs. collectivism as the basic distinguisher among cultures that leads to differences in thought and action. It joins other useful sourcebooks in expanding the traditional journalism ethics canon that include: Lana F. Rakow, ed. Women Making Meaning: New Feminist Directions in Communication (1992: Routledge); Hajime Nakamura, Philip P. Wiener, ed. Ways of Thinking of Eastern People s (1964: University of Hawaii Press); and Glenn D. Paige, Chaiwat Satha-Anand (Qader Muheideen) and Sarah Gilliatt, eds., Islam and Nonviolence (1993: Matsunaga Institute for Peace, Univ. of Hawaii). A philosophy journal that can be an asset in comparing Eastern and Western ways of thinking and the potentials for these perspectives on journalism ethics is Philosophy East & West, published by the University of Hawaii Press. A sampling of recent articles: Robert J.J. Wargo, "Japanese Ethics: Beyond Good and Evil," 40:4, October 1990, 499-5; Alasdair MacIntyre, "Individual and Social Morality in Japan and the United States: Rival Conceptions of the Self," 40:4, October 1990, 489-497; Krill Ole Thompson , "How to Rejuvenate Ethics: Suggestions from Chu Hsi," 41:4 (October 1991) 493-513; Steve Odin, "The Social Self in Japanese Philosophy and American Pragmatism: A Comparative Study of Watsuji Tetsuro and George Herbert Mead," 42:3 (July 1992) 4 75-501.

A sampling of recent articles discussing the implications of diversity on newsrooms, classrooms and news coverage includes: Donna Allen, "Women, Minorities and Freedom of the Press," Newspaper Research Journal 11:3 (Summer 1990); Ted Pease, "Ducking the Diversity Issue: Newspapers' Real Failure is Performance," Newspaper Research Journal 11:3 (Summer 1990); Alicia C. Shepard. "High Anxiety: The Call for Diversity in the Newsroom Has White Men Running Scared," American Journalism Review (November 1993); Andrea Sachs, "Diversity Dilemmas: Reporters as Demographic Resources," Columbia Journalism Review (September/October 1993); John Creed, "The Value of Cultural Journalism to Diversity in the Mainstream Press," Journalism Educator 49:3 (Autumn 1994); Ca rolyn Martindale, "Infusing Cultural Diversity into Communications Courses," Journalism Educator 46:4 (Winter 1991); and Njeri Fuller, "Making Diversity a Reality on Journalism Classrooms," Quill (December 1990). Resources from the profession and professionals are also important in considering expansion of the traditional canon and of diverse experiences for the classroom. Newsletters, surveys and reports, guest speakers and mentors are available from:

The Asian-American Journalists Association, 1765 Sutter Street, Room 1000, San Francisco, CA 94115. Phone 415-346-2051. National Association of Black Journalists, 11600 Sunrise Valley Drive , Reston, VA 221. Phone 703-648-1270. National Association of Hispanic Journalists, 1193 National Press Building, Washington, D.C. 20045. Phone 202-662-7145. Native American Journalists Association, 230 10th Ave. South, Minneapolis, MN 55415. Phone 612-376-0441. National Lesbian & Gay Journalists Association, P.O. Box 423048, San Francisco, CA 94142. Phone 415-905-4690. The AAJA, NABJ, NAHJ and NAJA, under the banner of Unity '94, representing their joint conference in Atlanta, produced "Kerner Plus 25: A Call for Action, A Report Prepared by Unity '94" (1993), available through any of the four organizations.

Video resources can also add to an expansion of thought and broadening of perspectives. Deborah Gee's 1987 video "Slaying the Dragon" (San Francisco: National Asian American Telecommunications Association/CrossCurrent Media, 60 minutes) is a comprehensive look at the stereotyping of Asians in the entertainment and news media. Erika Surat Anderson's "None of the Above" (New York: Filmmakers Library, 1993, 30 minutes) explores the world of people of multi-racial heritage. "Fear of Disclosure," by Jonathan L ee (San Francisco: National Asian American Telecommunications Association/CrossCurrent Media, 1994, 119 minutes) looks at the implications of HIV/AIDS revelation from a multi-ethnic gay perspective. Michael Gill's "Unfinished Business" (Smithsonian Instit ution/Public Media Video, 1991, 59 minutes), is a historic and contemporary look at Hispanic communities in the United States. Victor Masayesva produced "Imagining Indians" (Watertown, MA: Documentary Educational Resources, 1992, 56 minutes). Among many videos of the African-American experience is "Behind the Burning Cross" (San Francisco: The John Brown Anti-Klan Committee, 1991, 30 minutes) by George Lippman. Students gliding on the "Information Superhighway" can point and click their way through a number of diversity thoroughfares. The CLNET Diversity Page (http://latino.sscnet.ucla.edu/diversity1.html) is the entry to listservs, gophers, websites and newsgro ups on African Americans, Asian American, Latinos, Native Americans, and a "Multicultural and National WWW Service." The Asian American Resources homepage (http://yuggoth.ces.cwru.edu/yamauchi/aar.html) includes the online journals "Asian Voices" and "Har vard Chinese American Magazine." The Fourth World Documentation Project (http://www.halcyon.com/FWDP/fwdp.html) includes national, tribal and United Nations documents and resources for Native American and Pacific groups from the Center for World Indigenou s Studies. The Native American Resource Page (http://www.ota.gov/nativea.html) has similar resources. The MelaNet website includes the Ida Wells Barnett Media Center (http://www.melanet.com/melanet/ida/ida.html). An ftp site titled "Queer Organizations" can be accessed at ftp://vector.casti.com/pub/QRD/,html/orgs.html. Expanding Opportunities: Practicing Diversity in the Ethics Class1 Expanding thinking and resources about diversity can be matched with applied learning through expanded classroom opportunities based in active and collaborative strategies. Here are some suggestions that have produced positive classroom results:

Conclusion: Beyond Diversity and Into Practice

It is clearly time for journalism educators and professionals to expand their own knowledge of ethics as practiced by groups, rapidly outgrowing minority status, that have been traditionally dismissed as inconsequential or irrelevant in mainstream thought , dialogue, and civic participation. The changing demographics and dynamics of the 21st Century challenge us as chroniclers of the complete community. Imagine the changes in newsroom and civic culture if our current classroom corps of student journalist s could land in their first jobs armed with a greater knowledge of the ethics of non-western, non-white cultures, and a more informed understanding of people outside their own "comfort zones."

It is this kind of diverse and expanded base that will enable journalism to foster the kind of civic dialogue a truly inclusive democracy requires -- that welcomes and builds upon contributions from the complete community. There is an obligation to go b eyond classroom and newsroom numbers game when it comes to diversity. We must stretch farther, listen better, seek knowledge of other traditions and establish relationships within the larger community.

Endnote

1 Many of the activities in this section were presented by the authors to a working group of journalism educators and professionals at the 10th Annual Workshop on Teaching Ethics in Journalism at the University of Missouri. The authors are grateful to wor kshop participants for their suggestions in expanding some activities and contributing others.

References

Black, Jay, Steele, Bob, & Barney, Ralph (1995). Doing Ethics in Journalism: A Handbook with Case Studies (Society of Professional Journalists). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Christians, Clifford, Ferre, John & Fackler, P. Mark (1993). Good News: Social Ethics and the Press. New York: Oxford University Press.

Cose, Ellis (1994). Presentation to Associated Press Managing Editors, Philadelphia, Pa.

Elliott, Deni (1994). Interview with authors.

Friedman, Marilyn (1993). "Beyond Caring: The Demoralizing of Gender," in Larrabee, Mary Jeanne (ed.) An Ethic of Care: Feminist and Interdisciplinary Perspectives. New York: Routledge.

Gilligan, Carol (1982). In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Guanson, Lou Ann Ha'aheo (1993). "Hawaiian," in Paige, Glenn and Gilliatt, Sarah (eds.). Nonviolence in Hawaii's Spiritual Traditions. Honolulu: Matsunaga Institute for Peace, University of Hawaii.

Lambeth, Edmund, Christians, Clifford, & Cole, Kyle (1994). "Role of the Media Ethics Course in the Education of Journalists," Journalism Educator 49:3, 20-26.

Nakamura, Hajime (1964). Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

Rawls, John (1971). A Theory of Justice. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

David H. Weaver and G. Cleveland Wilhoit (1986, 1991). The American Journalist (Bloomington: Indiana University Press).

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